Do We Need To Be Worried?

     The article “Water Crisis Looms Unless We Understand Freshwater Cycles” discusses a study that shows the importance of not only knowing the amount of freshwater on the planet, but also finding out how it is ‘renewed.’ Taikan Oki and Shinjiro Kanae are the authors of the study. They believe that in order to preserve freshwater resources, we must follow water through the entire water cycle.

     Toward the end of the article, there are a couple of quotes that seem to contradict each other at first glance. Further explanation of the first quote is needed in order for the article to make sense. The first quote was:

“The anticipated global warming will accelerate the water cycle. Precipitation will increase and therefore runoff and river discharge will be increased, thus available freshwater resources will be increased on a macro scale (COSMOS).”

This is true, seeing as water that was previously ice will melt and contribute to higher water levels. There have been other studies done which conclude that precipitation patterns will be more erratic in the future. Areas will most likely receive an extreme version of the precipitation that they have now. Whether this results in flooding or drought depends entirely on the area. This leads to the second quote:

  “However, the more intense and intermittent precipitation characteristics anticipated in the future under global warming may not allow us to be optimistic… (COSMOS)”

While the first quote can lead the reader to believe that we are not on the verge of exhausting our freshwater resources, the second quote clearly eliminates that idea.

     The first quote is the problem, because there are no explicit details as to how this will affect our freshwater resources in the long run. They use a generalization that hurts their cause more than it helps it. More intense precipitation could lead the reader to believe that there will be more water available for consumption. But as water levels rise in the ocean due to melting ice, the salt water will flow into the freshwater aquifers. This will result in water that is not fit to drink because of the increased saline level. Desalination of contaminated ground water would be just as costly and harmful to the environment as the desalination of ocean water.

     This misunderstanding would be quite easy to make. The author of the article could include a bit more background to avoid any confusion for the reader. 

Sources:

"Water crisis looms unless we understand freshwater cycles | COSMOS magazine." COSMOS magazine | The science of everything. Web. 26 Oct. 2009. .

Privatization of Water Resources

Within the broad topic of fresh water resources there is a reliance on these fresh water systems to provide the necessities of life to all living organisms. In the blog article Is the privatization of water the right thing to do? , the author states “If water distribution was privatized, prices for individual consumers would likely increase with use, which would have the positive side effect of encouraging conservation”. This statement is ambiguous in nature because it makes the reader conceptually analyze to understand what the author is trying to convey in this blog about how water privatization will bring about instant conservation if water were privatized. In this blog post I will try to examine what is meant by the authors use of this phrase and how the authors statement can be misunderstood.

The use of this phrase is trying say how if water was to be a resource at the fingertips of privately state controlled places and companies that its prices would no doubt rise. With this rise in the price of water the amount used by people, companies, states or nations would undoubtably become more conservative. Water would be conserved because people would be more scared to use it due to its economic toll it would take. This sort of scare tactic would lead people to use less water but when it comes to fresh water conservation scaring people away from using it isn’t the best way to go about conservation.

The author’s theorized system of private water management is ambiguous because it involves a system that is tremendously different in comparison to the modern world. Water has never been a resource that has never strictly belonged to a person or place because of its universal importance to living organisms. This would be such a dramatic change from the way water is currently unowned that this purposed change to the ownership of water is not achievable. The inexact nature of the authors proposition of privately owned water makes it hard to conceive and ultimately impossible to put into practice. Without the sharing of resource of water like we currently partake in all over the world water ownership would become very hostile and militarily run. This argument is misunderstood on the basis that its application is almost impossible long with its effects that include cutting off impoverished nations along with starting disputes about the distribution of water.

In the article upon which this blog is based the statement that claims that if water were to be privately owned that it would lead to conservation. This statement is very easy to misunderstand because of the complete ill-defined terms of conservation and private ownership that it is based on. Without complete understanding of those two terms this concept is hard to understand. This is because our system of water distribution is much different today than it is in theory within the article. Although the idea in the article may be valid it does not include the critical ideas of how it would be practiced and some of the possible consequences it would bring.

Reference:

"Is the privatization of water the right thing to do?" Web log post. Water In The Works. Water and Wastewater in the Canadian context, 26 Oct. 2009. Web. 27 Oct. 2009. <http://waterintheworks.wordpress.com/2009/10/26/is-the-privatization-of-water-the-right-thing-to-do/

Written by:

Kendra Bester

Freshwater fish are depleting in numbers; but who or what is the main cause of this depletion?

According to a recent study, as many as four in ten species of fish inhabiting lakes and rivers in North America are in danger of becoming endangered. Through this study, it was also concluded that he number of subspecies of fish in danger in theses water bodies have doubled since 1989.
In the article “Freshwater fish in N. America in peril, study says” the author of the news article summarizes the methods and results in the study, which claims that “people are the chief cause of the problem” (CBC, 2008) for the decline in fish species in North America. Not included in the report however is how these species of fish are being affected so greatly by these “people”. In one sentence stated in the report “people are the chief cause of the problem by polluting and damming freshwater habitats” (CBC, 2008), however nowhere else in the article is this re-touched. This statement requires conceptual analysis due to the fact that the article lacks to describe or go into any detail at all how the human population is damming these freshwater habitats, or how damming these habitats is related to the decline in fish species numbers. After the statement, denoting people as the main problem in this issue, the author then begins to discuss the study to the reader, stating “In the first massive study of freshwater fish on the continent in 19 years, an international team of dozens of scientists looked not just at species, but also at subspecies…” (CBC, 2008) and the previous statement of the main cause is ignored.
In my opinion, I believe the author was trying to explain that by humans damming bodies of water they are negatively affecting the habitats of these fish species, which in turn affects their breeding and feeding grounds, which then forces the certain species to decline in numbers. In order to reiterate this point, the author could have allowed more room for discussion of why people were deemed the main cause of the problem, instead of stating random facts from the study. The statement “people are the chief cause of the problem” (CBC, 2008) could be misinterpreted by the reader due to the fact that the statement appears to be stating that the only reason that so many species of fish are becoming endangered or extinct is do the fact that people are damming freshwater habitats. However this is incorrect due to the fact that other components are affecting the decline of fish population such as environmental (change of temperature in climate) and ecological factors (predators of fish species becoming great in numbers).
Therefore, in order to be more concise with the wording of this particular statement, the author could have added more clarity by further discussing the accusation of people being the sole factor causing the decline in fish populations in North America.

Resources:
CBC, 2009, Freshwater fish in N. America in peril, study says
September 11th 2008, Accessed October 27th 2009
http://www.cbc.ca/canada/nova-scotia/story/2008/09/11/fish-endangered.html

Emily Hartwig

National Parks Losing their Flow

According to Peter H. Gleick, national parks in the United States are suffering and will continue to suffer the effects of climate change and of the improper use of their natural resources. With the combination of melting glaciers through climate change and of intense commercial use of freshwater resources, the odds are that they will become dry and lifeless.

In Gleick’s blog, “Managing the Waters”, water is considered an important part of ecosystems, and “healthy ecosystems require healthy waters” (Gleick, 2009). The blog mainly focuses on the importance of taking care of freshwater resources in the national parks versus depriving the parks of them. Ecosystems such as rivers are seen as just as important as, if not more than, the wildlife living in them.

There was a bit of confusion in one particular sentence in the blog:

“If we let our parks become fenced, static, ecologically impoverished oases in a sea of unsustainable development, they will cease being the living wonders envisioned by their founders.” (Gleick, 2009)

After having read the whole blog, it is clear that the word “static” in this sentence relates to a lack of water flow; however, with it being one of the first things mentioned, the use of this term is questionable and may seem exaggerated. The word “static” meaning motionless and unchanging, the original thought is that national parks cannot be static, as they are constantly changing environments and can survive without humans interfering.

Mainly because of the extent of their commercial use in national parks, freshwater resources are becoming scarce and their availability for the wildlife that shares their environment is nearing insufficiency. One can therefore see why the term “static” could have been used; disappearing water can lead to immobile ecosystems (lack of moving water as well as the death of wildlife that depends on it). That being said, it would have been helpful to include the author’s meaning of the word “static”, as, even though water is included in the title, the relation between water and the word “static” is not very clear. Gleick’s interpretation of human impact on national parks is still very well written, and his blog is useful in the recognition of the possible consequences of a badly looked-after national park.

Reference:

Gleick, Peter H. “Managing the Waters”. The New York Times. Sept. 27, 2009.

Sustainaby Managed Water

Freshwater is becoming the most precious commodity on the planet. In the article Have we reached peak water?, Paul Hanely highlights how as the human population increases the earth is becomes less able to support our water needs. Rivers are running dry in the United States, forcing people to rely on finite underground sources of water. China is experiencing a massive drought that is putting already polluted conditions into an emergency state. Finally, all over the world our trend towards the use of bottled water is augmenting the problem by using more energy and producing more greenhouse through packaging and shipping.

The way to combat the trend towards a global water crisis, says Hanely, is to improve upon sustainably managed water. In the article, this concept is related, “to the way we use, manage, and abuse the fresh water that is regularly replenished by precipitation” (Hanely, 2009). This includes lakes and rivers, not underground aquifers that will take years to replenish themselves. These sustainable or renewable sources must be protected and used wisely. Hanely explains that the proper management of these sources includes the reduction of water use, and the improvement of water treatment to clean what we have. Also, how we obtain and use water should be considered because the use of fossil fuels increases global warming and the water crisis.

The author’s description of sustainably managed water is fairly precise. However, though the use of the word sustainable he implies many additional meanings that do not come across in the rest of the article. The Sustainability Principle is the idea that there is a limit to economic growth. (Beder, 2006) To sustainably manage our water could mean that we decrease economic growth to fit within the limits of what water we have already appropriated. Sustainable management implies that we should put regulations on our water consumption so that it does not exceed what the earth can provide. To implement regulations more research, funding and willingness is required. Sustainably managed water can not arise overnight.

Beyond extra meanings, the concept of sustainability has inherent vagueness. Firstly, it is impossible to totally recycle and reuse a resource. Certainly we can minimize our impact such that the ecosystem will recover, but it will still have been changed through basic wear and tear. Also, questions of how long we responsible for sustainability to last arise. Are we accountable for the rest of our lives, our children’s lives, or the time of humanity on earth? Aquifers although usually considered finite, will replenish themselves over time. It is hard to decide if using these resources is sustainable or not if we know they could run out, but not for a long time if used correctly. Finally, who is responsible for these sustainably managed waters? A global commandment on how to be sustainable can not be made because many unindustrialized countries simply do not have the means to prevent degradation of water.

Sustainability has become one of the key phrases in environmentalism. However to use it correctly requires a very specific definition.

- Amy Adair


Resources

Beder, Sharon. Environmental Principles and Policies. London: Earthscan, 2006.

Hanely, Paul. canada.com. 10 March 2009. 24 October 2009 . .

Clean Water Act Confusion

The Clean Water Act is a piece of legislation in the United States that aims to protect the quality of surface water by using a variety of tools to reduce the amount of direct point pollution discharge into the nations waters. Landowners must go through a lengthy permit process in order to build on wetlands and other areas (U.S Environmental Protection Agency 2009). Recently, the regulators of this Act turned away two Michigan landowners who wanted to build on wetlands that they already owned. After taking this unfavorable decision to the Supreme Court, it was ruled that the regulators may have misinterpreted the Act.

The way the article phrases this incident makes it seem as if the regulators are incompetent at their job. It later mentions the fact that the Clean Water Act was just one vote away from being terminated as federal legislation. The author seems to be shedding negative light on this Act and the people who enforce it. Another way of viewing this statement, is that the author is merely relaying what has happened. She continually mentions the idea that water conservation can be very subjective, “And that makes it difficult to determine where the water ends and the wetland begins (Totenberg).” This concession makes it seem as if the author does not really think the

regulators are incompetent as each situation where this act is utilized is quite unique.

Overall, this article can be read in two totally different ways and this ambiguity does not give the reader a clear idea of what the author means. Read one way, both the situation and the Clean Water Act are seen as unreliable and antiquated. The other understanding that readers may have of it, is that water legislation is so subjective that it is nearly impossible to define right or wrong in any given situation. Perhaps given this idea, the Clean Water Act is indeed outdated and a new piece of legislation that encompasses all possible scenarios is necessary to prevent the Supreme Court from being involved in such an episode again.

-Elisabeth Shapiro

Sources:

Divided Supreme Court Rules on Wetlands Law, Nina Totenberg (2006). www.npr.org

Summary of the Clean Water Act, U.S Environmental Protection Agency (2009). www.epa.gov

The WWF Uses the Precautionary Principle for the Protection of Water

     In the 1992 Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, the precautionary principle was stated to be “where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degredation (Rio).” It is along these lines that the article “Climate Crisis Putting Canada’s Rivers at Risk (Sympatico.ca)” makes its case. This article refers to a report released by the WWF (“Canada’s Rivers are at Risk: Environmental Flows and Canada’s Freshwater Future”). This report talks about altered water flows and their effects on any downstream ecosystems.

     In the race to find a cleaner energy source, many have turned to hydropower. These projects are changing the basic structure of the rivers. The flow of (among others) the South Saskatchewan River and the St. Lawrence River have been altered so much in the past that it is placing pressure on the surrounding ecosystems.

     The WWF recommends that we look at what is happening to these rivers, and try to prevent it from happening to others. They made two suggestions: first, find a long-term plan to keep the rivers flowing; and second, create agreements to protect the ecosystems downstream of the altered river flow. They say “start planning now to protect river flows to ensure water security for the communities and economies that depend on them.”

     In short, the WWF would like the Canadian government to take action before something critical happens that can’t be undone. The use of the precautionary principle is effective, because we have no proof that these rivers will ever be able to fully restore themselves. Simply because the damage doesn’t seem widespread at the moment, that doesn’t mean that it won’t be in the near future.

 

 

Sources:

"Climate crisis putting Canada's rivers at risk | Sympatico.ca News." Home | Sympatico.ca News. Canada News. Web. 20 Oct. 2009. .

 

"- Rio Declaration - Rio Declaration on Environment and Development - United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) --." -- United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) - Home page --. Web. 20 Oct. 2009. .

Fisheries and Oceans Canada Keeping Information from Concerned Citizens

In “Letter from Dr. Gordon Hartman to the Minister of Fisheries and Oceans” (Hartman, G., McAllister, C. 2009), the role that Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is playing versus the role it should be playing in terms of fishery issues is well observed and criticized. Being a government-run organization, DFO is supposed to be following the precautionary principle established by our government itself. In the past 25 years, however, DFO has not been abiding to this rule and has certainly not been playing its part in environmental issues.

According to a short video (http://saveourrivers.tv/dfo_aquanor_hires.html) and to much research done by Hartman and McAllister, DFO has been working mainly at being “an aquaculture promotion organization than a responsibly involved fisheries research and management agency” (Hartman, G., McAllister, C. 2009). Its goals oppose each other in the sense that one is to protect wild salmon and the other is to sell it.

During an exhibition in Norway (according to Hartman’s and McAllister’s article and to http://saveourrivers.tv/dfo_aquanor_hires.html), DFO has not made enough research to be able to farm salmon, yet they are requesting the permission to either move their industry to northern Canada or to expand it. Their industry is neglecting the presence of sea lice (they have a negative impact on salmon) and is very expensive to fund. It is also a cause of rotting waste in the water and it consumes a large amount of energy. Nonetheless, DFO’s industry is very secretive, not providing information during interviews, and posting “Keep Out” signs near the farms.

If the precautionary principle was better followed by our government-run organizations, problems such as over-production of wild salmon could be stopped and more knowledge could be gained on it. It only takes a couple authors to raise awareness – it takes acknowledgment to stop the problem.

Resources:

Hartman, G., McAllister, C. “Letter from Dr. Gordon Hartman to the Minister of Fisheries and Oceans.” Rafe Mair Online. August 2009. < http://rafeonline.com/2009/08/letter-from-dr-gordon-hartman-to-the-minister-of-fisheries-and-oceans/>.

Video, < http://saveourrivers.tv/dfo_aquanor_hires.htmlv>.

Increasing Freshwater Fish Population in Malaysia: Helping the Environment, or Boosting Eco-Tourism?

In the article “Experts to boost fresh water fish population”, aquaculture experts in Malaysia have determined that in order for the population of fresh water fish in their area to remain high, they must take action. By use of the precautionary principle, the experts plan to “boost the population of local fish which might otherwise, face depletion without proper preservation” (Uggah, 2009). In my opinion, this application of the precautionary principle is not justified. By interfering with the natural fish population reproduction rate, researches risk the chance that this increase will offset the balance of the freshwater ecosystem.
When a species becomes too large by ways that are not natural, a problem can be created for the species prey (too many fish not enough food depletion of the species prey) and their predators (increase in food for predator could cause increase in set said predator). In the article, the author states that the Malaysian Natural Resources and Environment Minister, Datuk Douglas Uggah, declared that this would also promote eco-tourism such as sport fishing in the area. However this again could impose a problem, if eco-tourism increases, more fish are susceptible to capture and ultimately the population will decrease again, which will affect the ecological balance. This is not a proper use of the precautionary principle, which basically is “ a response to uncertainty, in the face of risks to health or the environment... it involves acting to avoid serious or irreversible potential harm, despite lack of scientific certainty as to the likelihood, magnitude, or causation of that harm” (Precautionary Principle, 2003). However it is my opinion that this scenario is not in need of this type of action due to the fact that no “serious or irreversible harm” is present in relation to the population of fresh water fish in Malaysia.

Resources:
Bernama (2009), Experts to Boost Freshwater Fish Population
October 4th 2009
Precautionary Principle Project, (2003), What is the Precautionary Principle?
January 19th 2003

Accessed: October 20th 2009
Emily Hartwig

The United Nations Prepare for the Worst

The United Nations Environment Programme’s (UNEP) policy entitled Fisheries and Aquaculture in our Changing Climate uses the precautionary principle to recommend beneficial changes to our use of aquatic resources. The precautionary principle states that if there is the possibility of harm to humans or the environment then action must be taken to reduce this harm, especially when the exact nature or severity of the problem is unknown. (Beder, 2006) Although climate change is a popular topic, its effects on any ecosystem are uncertain. Throughout the world, “some countries and fisheries will benefit while others will lose – the only certainty is change and decision makers must be prepared for it.” (UNEP, 2009) It is impossible to know exactly how aquaculture will be affected by climate change. UNEP calls for precautionary measures such as further research into water ecosystems, expansion of our knowledge of climate change, and improved management of fisheries to prevent over fishing and to reduce emissions of greenhouse gas.

I believe this use of the precautionary principle is beneficial. Even if the overall effects of climate change are not as severe as predicted, better fishing practises and a larger knowledge base will assist humanity in its use of aquatic resources. By preparing for the worst, we safeguard the future. Sustainable fishing practises will benefit us regardless because healthy streams, lake and oceans provide food, livelihood and protection to millions of people.

Climate change in itself is very controversial, however most agree it is occurring, just not to what extent. Considering that water is our “buffer to climate change” (UNEP, 2009) we should protect it so that it can protect us from whatever degree of climate change occurs. UNEP’s use of the precautionary principle is not a scare tactic. Negative effects of climate change, such lower water levels and violent weather, are already present. We should conserve and reduce now to mitigate climate change and ensure a plentiful supply of fish in the future.

- Amy Adair

Resources
Beder, Sharon. Environmental Principles and Policies. London: Earthscan, 2006.

UNEP. "environment for development." 2009. United Nations Environment Programme. 18
October 2009 DocumentID=289&ArticleID=3447>.

New Zealand Water Crisis

The blog “The Politics of Water” by Russel Normans discusses the critical freshwater management of New Zealand. He refers to the precautionary principle, not being used when it should be. In the book “Environmental Principles and Policies” by Sharon Beder it defines the precautionary principle as “morally unacceptable harm that is scientifically plausible but uncertain, actions shall be taken to avoid or diminish that harm.”(Sharon, 2006) This book also provides examples of unacceptable harm, such as “threatening human health, inequitable to present and future generations, and lack of consideration of the human rights of those affected.”(Sharon, 2006). For these reasons I will defend Russel Normans view of precautionary thinking towards this case.

When scientific evidence is not completely actuate, I believe the government should not stand around and wait for sound and valid evidence. This is known as the “wait and see approach”(Sharon, 2008). Instead the government should just have a convincing case, that may or may not be supported by scientific evidence. In a case that will provide health and safety to all. Such as in Norman’s blog, he refers to the the New Zealand “failed governance system” (Norman, 2009) because they fail to see the first level causes of New Zealand water crisis such as, “increased pollution flows intro freshwater bodies from agriculture, horticulture and sewerage.” (Norman, 2009). Scientific evidence is not needed to prove that this water is polluted, which means the government is better off to act on the problem of water crisis because it is better to be safe then sorry. Even if there is no real evidence, they need to realize that fresh water is important aspect of live, and also important aspect to maintain there economy. The New Zealand Government need to realize “the economic future of the country is dependent on successful environmental management.” (Norman, 2009).

Resources:

Beder, Sharon. Environmental Principles and Policies An Interdisciplinary Introduction. Minneapolis: Earthscan Publications Ltd., 2006. Print.

Norman, Russel. "The politics of water." Web log post. Frogblog. Frogblog, 9 June 2009. Web. 20 Oct. 2009. <http://blog.greens.org.nz/2009/06/09/the-politics-of-water/>.

Kendra Bester

Dam Proposal for Mary River

The Mary River in Queensland Australia is one known for erratic water flow and species that have been forced to adapt to their home. Proposals to put a dam in place on the river are being challenged by Dr. Lyndon DeVantier who believes that the creation of a model to address the possible impacts of this dam has not been properly done. He believes that the already struggling species who inhabit it would be unable to adapt to further environment changes. This claim is quite reasonable, as many of the organisms who inhabit this river are already referred to as endemic. Turtles in this river have weeds growing from their heads and some fish are able to breath air. Some advocates for the dam claim that it will improve the situation and provide the river and its species with a chance of recovery. Dr.DeVantier claims that “70% of all freshwater species extinction can be attributed to habitat modification”. (Ecologist warns of dam threat, 2009). If this claim is true, a dam will only worsen the situation for the river and its species. While no work has been done to prove these claims one way or another, it is important to think of all the possible outcomes that a dam will have on this ecosystem. It would be completely audacious to implement such radical changes to an ecosystem without doing so. The government has already been told that it is quite likely that dangerous weeds would take over the ecosystem and have an adverse affect on these already compromised organisms. Having received results such as this, it is difficult to believe that the government would knowingly go through with these plans. It is quite lucky that Dr. Lyndon has stepped forward to act as a steward for the river.

Sources:

Hoffman Bill, (2009) Ecologist Warns of Dam Threat.

www.sunshinecoastdaily.com

-Elisabeth Shapiro

The Effects of Elevation and Forest Covers on Freshwater Resources

Researchers seem to be advancing in their understanding of reasons behind changes in snow-energy and mass-balance, based on a study done in British-Columbia’s Okanagan Basin. The main idea of this research is that snow-energy and mass-balance might be influenced by elevation and forest-covers, and to determine to what extent this is true the researchers used four sites in the well elevated Coldstream Basin, found within the larger Okanagan Basin. Among the measured aspects were snow depth and density, temperature and humidity, radiation, wind speed and direction, melt and vapour, as well as precipitation. These aspects were evaluated in the four sites, which were situated strategically based on elevation, with one forested and one open site per elevation level.

According to Jackson and Prowse, there was a “1-4% loss of peak SWE [snow water equivalent] at open sites, and 4-12% at the forested sites”. Sublimation (the transformation of a solid to a vapour without passing through the liquid state) and melt rates were higher in the open sites, and although researchers found that the snow was gone 2-5 days earlier on open sites than on forested sites, the open sites still kept a higher SWE than the forested ones. The snow density in the forested areas was notably smaller than the snow density in the open areas.

As for the influence of elevation on the snow water equivalent (amount of water contained in the snow), what was noticed was that a higher elevation led to a greater wind speed and that temperature varied depending on the elevation, but that humidity barely changed. There was a very noticeable difference in radiation from site to site, and the relations between them were not evident. Cold Mid and Cold Up (two sites on different elevations) were the only two sites with the same radiation. For the most part, Cold Mid (the middle-elevation site) seemed to be the least influenced site of all; it had the smallest loss of snow water equivalent due to sublimation, and the latent heat fluxes were less common on this site. Also observed, was the fact that the melting occurred mostly in lower altitude areas since they became warmer sooner.

Generally, melting occurred mostly in warm and high moisture environments, sublimation was caused by cold and dry air masses, and the recorded wind speeds were faster at the lower and higher sites than at the middle sites. The results found in this study were very similar to those found elsewhere, and they are helping build a strong base for future research on snow-energy and mass-balance. This study is a good start to better understanding the effects of climate change and tree cutting (causing more open spaces) on our freshwater resources.

References

Jackson, Scott I., Prowse, Terry D. “Spatial variation of snowmelt and sublimation in a high-elevation semi-desert basin of western Canada.” InterScience. 23, 2611 – 2627 (2009). DOI: 10.1002/hyp.7320.

Groundwater and it's future

It’s a concept that we seem to learn at an early age. It boggles the young mind that what we are made of is at least as old as our planet. The air that we breathe is the same air that dinosaurs once inhaled. The amount of water currently on earth is the same amount as when the planet was formed. As much as this is an interesting fact, it is also one of the major reasons that scientists are looking into water resources for the future. There are many factors that are causing changes in how we view the resource that is fresh water. Clean drinking water is essential to leading a healthy life. The same water is also used to water crops. It is quickly becoming common knowledge that the world’s freshwater resources aren’t replenishing themselves as fast as we can use them. In the paper Will groundwater ease freshwater stress under climate change?, Zbigniew W. Kundzewicz and Petra Döll have worked to show that we should be cautious when it comes to groundwater use.

     The main reason for decline in groundwater levels is high rates of groundwater abstraction (taking water from a source). Kundzewicz and Döll showed that the increase in groundwater recharge will be less than the increase in total runoff by roughly seven percent. In this way, Northeastern Brazil is claimed to be “the most critical vulnerability globally (Kundzewicz).” Places similar in geography and climate to Brazil will likely experience a drop in groundwater recharge. This will probably coincide with a lack of precipitation.

     Then there are the snow-receiving parts of the planet. The higher temperatures from climate change will results in less snow in the winter season. This means that in the spring there will be less snow melting. Right now, melted snow makes up 40-70% of water in the groundwater recharge. But Kundzewicz and Döll warn that humid regions could receive more rain than usual. Excess amounts of water could lead pathogens into the groundwater.

     The final problem that was discussed was the rise in sea level. Many see this as a problem because flooding will take up much needed space in an over-populated world. Flooding will be a problem, but not only for that reason. There is the issue of contamination of groundwater on many low-lying islands. If the sea level (salt water) passes above the groundwater level, it endangers much of that area’s freshwater resources. This would mean resorting to desalination methods, which are expensive and use more resources than they produce. At the end of any desalination there is also the question of how to dispose of what’s been taken out of the water.

     Kundzewicz and Döll suggest that the “use of groundwater could ease freshwater stress under climate change (Kundzewicz).” They also suggest that there be further research into possible artificial groundwater recharge. Although they warn that this may be difficult and fraught with complications. The two scientists show that all hope might not be lost for keeping track of our water resources. But they do feel the need for collecting more data in order to be certain.

Source:

Kundzewicz, Zbigniew W., and Petra Döll. "Will groundwater ease freshwater stress under climate change?" Hydrological Sciences Journal 54.4 (2009): 665-67. Web. 13 Oct. 2009. .

Energy Production, Depends on Water

The paper presented by the Carrillo and Frei, talks about the decrease of water and energy, as the world population and demand starts to increase. Within Carrillo and Frei’s research they stress issues about the rare amount of useable freshwater and the large amounts of energy it takes to produce and distribute the water and how the need of water must to be taken into consideration when researching future alternative energy sources. Their paper gives insight to a major world issue about the depletion of water and how it affects every life form on this planet. This leads one to conclude that this is becoming a important problem in the 21st Century because without the presence of water any kind of life can not be sustained.

As population growth continues to increase on this planet the amount of usable fresh water is decreasing. This is because the main use of water is to generate power that leads to our fresh water being contaminated and becoming non renewable. This happens when “water is used at various stages of the power generation cycle, including fuel extraction (mining and refining, oil, gas, uranium, and coal processing, coal and gas liquefaction and gasification, carbon sequestration)” (Carrillo, Frei, 2009). When these productions happen the water is taken out of its natural water cycle and made into a contaminated substance which is often toxic to living organisms. Therefore the amount of usable fresh water will become very sparse in the near future.

Carrillo and Frei also talk about the large amount of water which is needed in the production of energy, they also talk about how the energy is then needed to clean and filter the water so we can use it in our everyday lives. Meaning the energy and water are interconnected and dependent on each other. Since they’re interconnected and the “water resources are declining, the promotion of a diverse supply of reliable, affordable and sustainable energy is also at stake.”(Carrillo, Frei, 2009) Carrillo and Frei and trying to make the point that if we ruin one of natural resources (such as water), it will affect other major aspects of life such as the economy, the environment and our well being.

Within this research study it is predicted that “in the future there will be a greater demand for water and energy”. Carrillo and Frei want to educate the energy producers of the future to consider the consumption of water when producing energy. In their research they create a model which “estimates the total water needs associated with energy production in different sector for different purposes.” (Carrillo, Frei, 2009) This model was conducted for the country of Spain, from there model they realized “energy resources is projected to be more than 25% more water consumptive in 2030 than the 2005.” (Carrillo, Frei, 2009) However just in the “transportation sector, if biofuels increased from 1% to 25% of the fuels used for transportation, they would consume almost 6 times the total water consumed by the electricity sector.” (Carrillo, Frei, 2009). Also through there research they determined if Spain were to base “37% wind power, water withdrawal would be reduced by almost 8% compared to the 2030” (Carrillo, Frei, 2009). Therefore they have proven that in the future if we produce our energy from renewable sources that didn't depend on water, that countries water consumption could decrease.

The research of Carrillo and Frei concluded that water and energy are interdependent on each other, if one becomes affected the other will eventually become affected. When water is used to make energy it can often become contaminated and nonrenewable for example when used in a such process like producing oil. Also Carrillo and Frei research concluded through their model that if we start producing our energy in a way that is cautious with our water, we can restore our water tables slowly. This could be done by a mix of different energies “ based on wind and solar energy which is less water intensive than any other scenario” (Carrillo, Frei, 2009). In their research they have identify a on going problem about energy production and its dependence on water. With a research model that presents a way which will help with water and energy conservation in the future.

Resources

Carrillo, Anna Merce` Rio, and Christoph Frei. "Water: A key resource in energy production." Energy Policy (2009): 1-10. Print.

Kendra Bester

Calculating the Spread of Zebra Mussels: What is the Future for These Invasive Pests?

Zebra mussels are a non-native invasive species that have affected countless fresh water systems in North America. Zebra mussels (Dreissena polymorpha), originally native to lakes in southeast Russia, have had massive economical and ecological effects in North America due to the fact that they successfully compete for habitat, so “…colonies of zebra mussels may accumulate and clog water-intake pipes and screens of drinking water facilities, industrial facilities, power generating plants…”(Gulf of Maine Aquarium, 2005).

In a 2004 study entitled "The Potential Distribution of Zebra Mussels in the United States", John M. Drake (postdoctoral fellow at the National Center for Ecological Analysis and Synthesis) and Jonathan M. Bossenbroek (associate in the Department of Biological Sciences, University of Notre Dame) attempt to determine “the potential distribution of zebra mussels in the United States by applying a machine-learning algorithm for nonparametric prediction of species distributions”(Boosenbroek, Drake, 2004). In simpler words, the study’s focus was to create a mathematical model in order to predict the probable location of zebra mussel accumulations in the United States. Locations predicted by the model where zebra mussels would flourish could then prepare for suitable treatments, while areas not likely to be affected could avoid spending the time and resources for unnecessary contingency plans.

In order to construct the mathematical sequence, several variables needed to be estimated over the various regions of the United States. The environmental factors included; average annual temperature, frost frequency, annual precipitation, solar radiation, minimum temperature, and maximum temperature. The geological factors included; bedrock geology, elevation, flow accumulation, slope, and surface geology. The factors were collected from all over the United States in order to determine possible direct and indirect effects on zebra mussel habitat.

The conclusions of the study predicted that some large areas would likely not become infested with zebra mussels. “…our results suggest that much of the American West will be uninhabitable for zebra mussels” (Boosenbroek, Drake, 2004).

Areas predicted to be impacted by zebra mussels according to this model were summarized as follows: “using this method…high [risk] throughout the Midwest…[the] three western river systems…the Southeast…and along the eastern seaboard” (Boosenbroek, Drake, 2004). Considering the degree of industrial development in these areas, the amount of planning and the search for methods to control the zebra mussels while not causing considerable damage to the rest of the ecosystem will be extensive.

References:

Drake, John .M, Boosenbroek, Jonathon .M, (2004) The Potential Distribution of Zebra Mussels in the United States:
BioScience 54(10):931-941. 2004 doi: 10.1641/0006-3568(2004)054[0931:TPDOZM]2.0.CO;2
Accessed: October 13th 2009

“Zebra Mussels”, Gulf of Maine Aquarium (2005)
http://www.gma.org/surfing/human/zebra.html
Accessed: October 13th 2009

Emily Hartwig

Freshwater Preservation Strategy in India

Researchers in India have recently implemented Artificial Neural Network (ANN) to predict groundwater levels in five aquifers in Prakash India. This system mimics human and animal neural response systems to analyze nonlinear and complex data that humans cannot with high accuracy. It uses a series of algorithms to analyze data about a certain topographical area and its watershed to forecast the outcome of different possible water usage situations.

The study was carried out in Andhra Pradesh in India, a region characterized by poor soil conditions, sporadic rainfall and little vegetation. Its main source of drainage is the massive granite hills to the north that disperse into many smaller tributaries. By inputting all this data as well as other factors such as differences in the slope and rainfall in particular areas they were able to create five year forecasts for different possible water usage outcomes. There are many different stages to ANN analysis. Firstly, all the data must be inputted into the system, wrong values and vastly different measurements are removed for accuracy. After this is completed, a series of algorithms are used to properly analyze up to 23 months worth of data. Many different solutions are created and the best possible route is chosen to optimize water use. The validity of the forecast is then validated and is carried out for different wells

This mode of research is an excellent way to learn about water stewardship. It is completely non invasive and allows people to understand just how much water there is available for use. The study estimated that if overpumping in one area can affect four different wells and that levels could hit zero even while the aquifers are in a state of recharge. They also predict that decreasing pumping rate could increase groundwater levels by eight to ten meters suring months of recharge.

So far in Andhra Pradesh, forecasting has been carried out for five geologically different wells for up to five years in advance. The changes from year to year are predicted by hypothetically creating different water usage strategies and this mode of forecasting has so far shown unprecedented accuracy.

Freshwater resource abuse is a serious issue that is occurring in many countries. Using this system emphasizes the idea that you cannot have just one way of treating aquifers as each are unique and has a variety of differing factors that must be taken into conisderation. These forecasts have already helped raise awareness among citizens of the Andhra Pradesh region of India. This will hopefully prompt government officials to devise or improve current water stewardship practices in India and incite similar studies in other countries.

-Elisabeth Shapiro

Sources:

Banerjee Pallavi, Prasad R.K, and Singh V.S (2008). Forecasting of groundwater level in hard rock region using artificial neural network. Environ Geol.

Anglers Disrupt Local Aquatic Ecosystems

Fishing, the well-loved hobby of many outdoor enthusiasts, may actually be damaging the very shoreline ecosystems that they enjoy. The study by Amanda C. O’Toole, Kyle C. Hanson and Steven J. Cooke, recently published in the journal Environmental Management shows how the beaches of Ottawa, Ontario and Gatineau, Quebec are being swamped by anglers enjoying an escape to the great outdoors. Factors such as soil and water quality, fish and plant populations and abundance of litter were measured in various popular fishing regions. Three out of these five factors showed that environmental degradation does occur in high traffic areas.

From July 16 to 27 in 2007 the researchers from Carleton University found fourteen good fishing sites with the help of local fishermen. Then comparative sites twenty-five meters away along the same shoreline were chosen as a model of what the area would be like without human interference. The contrasts were disturbing. In the well-known fishing areas plant diversity and abundance, and soil quality were poor along the shorelines. The passage of many feet has worn fertile shores into compacted, barren landscapes susceptible to erosion and other degrading factors. (O’Toole, Hanson, Cooke, 2009) The surrounding aquatic habitat did not show such a startling difference, however it can be expected that with the degradation of the shorelines, the water will soon follow. Aquatic plants and shoreline plants contribute to water clarity and dissolved oxygen, (O’Toole, Hanson, Cooke, 2009) so as the plants disappear so will fish stocks.

Most saddening was the abundance of garbage found in angling destinations. While nothing was found in the control sites, nine-hundred times the amount of fishing line was found in fishing areas, as well as other forms of angling and non-angling related litter. (O’Toole, Hanson, Cooke, 2009) Styrofoam worm containers were even found despite the deposit that has recently been placed on them by a local fish supply store.

So what can we do to protect our shorelines? O’Toole, Hanson and Cooke call for increased awareness of this sensitive riparian ecosystem. Hopefully knowledge of the damage being done will spur nature lovers into protecting their weekend getaway spots. (O’Toole, Hanson, Cooke, 2009) Decreased packaging on fishing gear, easy access to garbage cans and even man-made docks would also assist in the protection of this aquatic resource.

Studies on the ecological effects of freshwater fishing are relatively new. Usually researchers are more concerned with the direct effect of the angler on the fish or fish community, not the damage done to the surrounding environment. (O’Toole, Hanson, Cooke, 2009) Yet it is that environment that maintains plentiful fish populations. This new form of study shows that “there is a need for information on the potential environmental consequences of recreational fishing to ensure that the ecologic integrity of riparian systems is maintained.” (O’Toole, Hanson, Cooke, 2009) By protecting the surrounding area, the public of Canada’s capital can enjoy angling for many years to come.

- Amy Adair
0660106

References
O'Toole, A. C., Hanson, K. C., & Cooke*, S. J. (2009). The effect of shoreline recreational angling
activities on aquatic and riparian habitat within an urban environment: Implications for
conservation and management. Environmental Management, 44(2), 324-334.
doi:10.1007/s00267-009-9299-3

Small but Mighty Phytoplankton

In the Journal “Ecotoxicology”, Amy L. Downing, Kristen M. DeVanna, C. Nichole Rubeck-Schurtz, Laura Tuhela and Heather Grunkemeyer have published an important article about the effects of a common pesticide on invertebrate communities and their ability to bounce back after disturbance.
This topic is a highly important one because, as mentioned in the article, “the rate of extinction of freshwater fauna is five times higher than the rate for terrestrial fauna”. One of the greatest reasons for this is the impacts of agriculture, which include habitat loss, eutrophication and the run-off of herbicides and pesticides. How does the run-off of these chemicals affect communities? Many previous studies have examined the consequences for single species or small groups of species, but Downing et. al. attempted to examine the results for entire communities or ecosystems.
Using a natural community of zooplankton, phytoplankton and microbes collected from a nearby pond, they set up a system of experimental mesocosms. To these artificial ponds, they added pulses of the commonly used pesticide “Sevin” with the active ingredient carbaryl at different concentrations. They then recorded the changes in 7 different response variables that served to reflect the health of the ecosystem.
What they found was that after 30 days the differences in carbaryl concentrations were completely unnoticeable as it was broken down into the system. At the highest concentration, only 2 of the 7 response variables (zooplankton diversity and oxygen concentration) showed a complete return to original levels. Zooplankton richness, diversity and abundance had all declined, while abundance of phytoplankton and microbes had actually increased. This is supposed to be due to the decrease in predatory pressure from the zooplankton.
Downing et al. found these results to be encouraging, as partial or complete recovery was made very quickly in the communities that had been treated with lower concentrations, and even in those treated with the higher concentration. But reminded the reader to take these results with a grain of salt as there several limitations to their experiment existed. Firstly, the communities were made up of only invertebrates, not macrophytes, macroinvertebrates and vertebrates who might have different reactions to the carbaryl. As well, these invertebrates had much shorter generation times than other, more complex, organisms, and this allowed for such a rapid recovery time. Finally, in reality, ecosystems would most likely be pulsed with pesticide run-off more than once a year, as was done in the experiment. There might be more serious effects for an ecosystem from long term exposure.
Downing et al.’s work helps open our eyes to how ecosystems cope with stress and reveals the adaptability and recovery a community of invertebrates is capable of.
Source
Downing, Amy L., Kristen M. DeVanna, C. Nichole Rubeck-Schurtz, Laura Tuhela and Heather Grunkemeyer. “Community and ecosystem responses to a pulsed pesticide disturbance in freshwater ecosystems”. Ecotoxicology. 17 (2008):539–548

The Answers Lie Within their Bones

Using the article “Stable isotope dietary analysis of the Tianyuan 1 early modern human” as a primary source, Neil Schoenherr does well at summarizing recent results from studies on the possibility of freshwater fish being part of the human diet for at least 40,000 years. These studies were performed by comparing the sulfur isotope values in a Tianyuan 1 human fossil, dating from 40,000 years ago, to animals that do have such a diet. The scientists were also able to use the presence of carbon and nitrogen in the Tianyuan 1 bone as indicators of animal protein, with nitrogen also being a possible indicator of freshwater fish.

According to the primary article, for this research, bone samples, belonging to a human, 2 sikka deer, 9 unidentified herbivores and a wild cat, all found in Tianyuan Cave, were used. Also used were fish samples from a later time period than that of Tianyuan Cave. This was feasible because of the consistency in the sulfur isotope signals due to geological relevance.

Although I find Schoenherr’ article, “First direct evidence of substantial fish consumption by early modern humans in China” (Schoenherr, 2009) quite well written, my only concern would be the certainty he uses to make his claim. It is true that the sulfur, carbon and nitrogen isotopes almost prove the presence of freshwater fish in early humans diets; however Schoenherr fails to mention certain contradictory points such as that in which no fish bones were found in Tianyuan Cave, or that of the lack of contemporary fish from Tianyuan Cave. The last point mentioned could have had an effect on the accuracy of the research, and both points were explained in the primary source.

This sentence written by Schoenherr did take his article to a more interesting level:

Chemical analysis of the protein collagen, using ratios of the isotopes of nitrogen and sulfur in particular, can show whether such fish consumption was an occasional treat or a regular food item. (Schoenherr, 2009)

However, I believe it would have made his text richer had he also included an explanation of how the isotopes are related to freshwater fish and how they used those isotopes to compare the Tianyuan 1 fossil to different animals. That little bit of information could have made the text easier to understand, without necessarily being too detailed and taking away from the purpose of the article.

Schoenherr’ article was short and stated his point well. The title he used was not over-exaggerated yet it was interesting enough to want to read what he wrote; he used numbers to make the information more clear (40,000 years old); his statements were not too vague; and he kept to the information provided in the primary article. A better version of his article might have included more base information on the materials and methods, as more people could have then been able to understand what was being presented. Also, a brief mention of certain problems the scientists had to face during the analyzing process would have been helpful and led to a more insightful grasp of the limitations behind the results. Otherwise, Schoenherr’ article was well written.

References

Schoenherr, Neil. (2009) First direct evidence of substantial fish consumption by early modern humans in China. Washington University in St. Louis News & Information; issue 14346; 9 July 2009. http://news-info.wustl.edu/tips/page/normal/14346.html. Accessed 6 October 2009.

Hu, Y., Shang, H., Tong, H., Nehlich, O., Liu, W., Zhao, C., et al. Stable isotope dietary analysis of the Tianyuan 1 early modern human. PNAS, issue 10971, 7 July 2009. http://www.pnas.org/content/106/27/10971.full. Accessed 6 October 2009.

From High in the Colorado River to Low Water Levels

         The journal entry “Sustainable water deliveries from the Colorado River in a changing climate” by Tim P. Barnett and David W. Pierce discusses the future of the Colorado River. At the current rate of decline, the Colorado River and the bodies of water it supports are in for a tough century. The study shows that the hydrological cycle over the past few decades (in this region) has included a higher runoff rate than any other time period (Barnett). This has resulted in higher water levels in the Colorado River and Lake Mead than any other century. The conclusion of the study was that the number of water deliveries from the river must be reduced in the near future.

         Jeremy Hance is the author of the article “Colorado River unlikely to meet current water demands in warmer, drier world.” This online article highlights main ideas from the recent study on the Colorado River. Hance focused on the more easily discussed features of the study. As if to avoid any errors in reporting, the majority of the facts come from direct quotations of the scientists.

         Being a report and not a critique, the article by Hance is very similar in structure to the actual journal entry. They both begin with statistics from the Colorado River, and end with the mention of water delivery cuts. Other than that, Hance does a poor job of covering the important issues. Unlike many articles on the web which over exaggerate the rate of freshwater loss, this article seems to understate the urgency with which we must act. The way he reports the facts, this is a far off problem. It is spoken of as if it was expected all along. In the study, there is the mention of water delivery cutbacks being made by the government (Barnett). Again this is altered slightly by Hance. He seems to give the impression that the government can handle this by implementing a plan that they’ve already drawn up. It states clearly in the report that no such plan has been brought up by the government.

         The major topic of discussion touched on by the article is that there have been increased water levels in the past few decades. There is no explanation given for this in the article by Hance. For anyone who doesn’t believe that global warming exists, this is the perfect opportunity for them to speak. Any ‘non-believer’ could claim that this is part of the natural ebb and flow of nature. The water levels are falling (that is undeniable). But there is an argument to be made that they will rise again in the future. This is disproved in the study done by Barnett and Pierce. They show that climate change due to human development caused increased runoff (from melting ice), which in turn increased the water levels in the Colorado River. This can’t last forever (or return once it stops) because there is only so much water trapped in a solid state above sea level. Decreased run off levels and an increase in population will cause the water levels to drop dramatically in this century (Barnett).

         Hance appears to be a fan of stating facts and values but not expanding on any of the ideas behind them. The values mean nothing unless they are put into perspective. For any future articles he should try to summarize the study and then add collected values. This would prevent any parts of the article from being skipped or left unsupported.

-Jesse Murray 

Barnett, Tim P.; Pierce, David W. (2009).  “Sustainable water deliveries from the Colorado River

in a changing climate.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 20 April 2009.

Accessed 7 Oct 2009.

 

Hance, Jeremy. “Colorado River unlikely to meet current water demands in warmer, drier world.” 20 April 2009.

Accessed 7 Oct 2009.

Fresh Water Affects on Dragonflies

Kendra Bester

In this paper I will be comparing and analyzing the differences between the target article “Dragonflies go thirsty in the Mediterranean” in comparison and contrast to the primary research literature published by IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™. In the article “Dragonflies go thirsty in the Mediterranean” it talked about how dragonflies are threatened by extinction because of a decrease in fresh water in the Mediterranean region.

After thorough investigation, of both the primary research literature and the target article, there was some contrast between the two sources. The primary research evidently had a lot more background information regarding the matter. Where as the target article was more likely to talk about the positive absolute results of the research, while leaving out contributing factors and errors that might of made the experiment and research not as accurate. Such as in the primary research it talks about “Six species (4% of the total assessed) could not be assessed due to a lack of information regarding their past or current distribution, and are therefore categorized as Data Deficient.” (Riservato, Boudot, Ferreira, et al, 2009) The six species that were not assessed due to the lack of information, made the research of dragonflies extinction less accurate. Which is why the target article did not mention this information because the author wants the article to give off an aura of precision and legitimacy. The target article also leaves out important facts about how “ conservation status of plants and animals is one of the most widely used indictors for assessing the condition and biodiversity of an ecosystem.” (Riservato, Boudot, Ferreira, et al, 2009) This fact would of been good to explain to the audience about why the research was conducted and about how the extinction of dragonflies is providing awareness to the world about the depletion of fresh water supply. Furthermore the primary research uses a more concrete scientific approach to displaying the research, by using scientific language along with graphs and charts. Where the target article uses basic language to describe the research found to the general public, that may or may not have a scientific background. This basic language gives the general public the capacity to comprehend the subject matter of the article.

Although both the primary research literature and the target article had much differentiation in the amount of information and how the information was displayed. The information that was presented in both was all the same. Meaning that the target article did not exaggerate the information given in the primary literature. The target article just took the key points of the exact information given and organized to make a summary of the research done by the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™. This summary may have been more general and somewhat less scientific but both target article and primary source still presented the information in the same context.

After comparing and analyzing the differences between the target article “Dragonflies go thirsty in the Mediterranean” in comparison and contrast to the primary research literature published by IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™. It is evident that the primary research literature and the target article, both generate and present that same type of research. However the target leaves out much information, that is important to the research study, but not as important to the general public.

References

"Dragonflies go thirsty in the Mediterranean." IUCN Red List of Threatened Species(2009): 1-1. Surfbirds News. Web. 6 Oct. 2009. <http://www.surfbirds.com/sbirdsnews/archives/2009/10/dragonflies_go.html>.

Riservato, Elisa, Jean-Pierre Boudot, Sonia Ferreira, Miloš Jović, Vincent J. Kalkman, Wolfgang Schneider, Boudjéma Samraoui, and Annabelle Cuttelod. THE STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION OF DRAGONFLIES OF THE MEDITERRANEAN BASIN. Publication. Gland: IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature), 2009. Print.